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How Many Neurotransmitters are There

postman1 — Sat, 03 Sep 2011 10:36:53 +0000

A neurotransmitter is a specialized messenger chemical that transfers or sends information from one type of cell to another. Scientists have managed to identify over 100 neurotransmitters in the human brain alone, but evidence suggests we have significantly more than this number. An unfortunate aspect of not being able to identify all neurotransmitter cells is that researchers, especially those developing medications to act on specific messenger cells, can’t always determine why or how medications work or fail to work.

You’re probably familiar with some of the identified neurotransmitter names. These include dopamine, GABA, serotonin, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine. Each of these performs some specific functions in the body. For instance serotonin is indicated in mood stability, emotional response, and temperature control. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that allows for the person to willfully or voluntarily use his or her muscles. While researchers can suggest the possible effects of certain neurotransmitters, they not only haven’t identified them all, but also are nowhere near determining all effects of the messenger cells that have been identified

This is made very clear when people are given medications that should have an effect on a neurotransmitter. A variety of drugs focus on preventing the body from using serotonin too quickly and are called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). SSRIs are most commonly used to treat depression, and are helpful in preventing the body from using serotonin too quickly. When this neurotransmitter is in greater supply in the brain it tends to elevate mood, and you’ve likely heard the names of some of the common SSRIs like Prozac®, Zoloft® and Paxil®.

Theoretically, if serotonin were the only neurotransmitter responsible for depression, these medications would treat everyone. Yet many people with depression don’t respond to SSRIs. They may instead respond to medications that act on GABA, dopamine or norepinephrine. Some people have tried all these medications meant to alleviate depression and are still unresponsive to treatment. Failure to respond to treatment suggests we don’t fully understand the role of neurotransmitters in depression, and there may be unidentified messengers that create conditions like depressed or anxious states.

Since we don’t understand the precise mechanism of each neurotransmitter or the true number of all that exist, we also can’t understand how medications, foods, or environmental exposure may affect these chemical messengers. Scientists and researchers must make educated guesses based on what is known, but the plethora of unknown information on these cells equates these theories to trying to playing darts in total darkness. Sometimes the guesses are pretty good; SSRIs for instance are reasonably effective for a lot of people. Other times these theories fail to work, since we’re guessing about what is essentially undiscovered territory, and we have no idea what other effects might be caused by raising or decreasing levels of certain chemicals made by the body.

The mechanism and identification of neurotransmitters remains a fertile area of study in the sciences. If we could know precisely how many of these messengers we have, and exactly how they work, interact with each other, and drive the body, we might be able to effectively develop medications to treat numerous conditions. Until then, educated guesswork is relied upon by science and medicine.

How Much Fat Is in Whole Milk

postman1 — Sun, 24 Apr 2011 12:12:44 +0000

With the number of non-fat and low fat milk and milk products available on the market, certain questions are implied. Exactly how much lower in fat are these milks than standard milk? Is 1% or 2% milk really much lower in fat or calories than whole milk, and are there any people who should drink whole milk?
An 8 fluid ounce (about 0.236 liters or 247 grams) serving of whole milk has 146 calories, and approximately 0.279 ounces (7.93 grams) of fat. In contrast, 2% milk contains 122 calories and 0.169 ounces (4.81 grams) of fat. 1% milk has 102 calories and 0.083 ounces (2.37 grams) of fat, and non-fat or skim milk has about 0.015 ounces (0.44 grams) of fat and contains 86 calories per serving.
In percentage factors, whole milk could be called 3.5% milk. It must have at least 3.5% milk fats in order to be classed as “whole.” The above figures show, however, that whole milk has almost twice the fat content as does 2% milk, and about 16 times the fat content of nonfat milk.
This doesn’t necessarily mean that regular milk is always bad. In fact, from a calorie standpoint, the difference between standard milk and 2% milk is fairly minimal. A person would be consuming about 30 more calories when drinking whole milk. Calorie differences are most significant when comparing whole milk to non-fat milk. A glass of non-fat milk saves 64 calories, which may be an asset if the drinker is trying to lower his or her calorie consumption.
There are groups of people that should not drink lower fat milk, and there is some evidence that using low fat milks can be of detriment. This is especially the case with children. For children who drink milk, more fat content is actually better, especially for kids under two. Pediatricians represent several schools of thought here. Some suggest that children under the age of five should keep drinking regular milk, while others argue that low fat milk is fine for kids over the age of two. If a child seems to be getting plenty of calories and eats a well-balanced diet, whole milk may not be necessary.
For people with conditions that cause them to be undernourished, whole fat milk may also be a better choice than low fat varieties. If a person is trying to gain weight, more calories are usually better, and humans do need a certain amount of fat in their diet. Alternately, if a person likes the creamy taste of regular milk and eats an otherwise low fat diet, a single glass of milk a day will only constitute 23% of his or her daily allowance for saturated fat. On the other hand, if someone is trying to lose weight, lower fat milk may be the better choice.

How Much Radiation can the Human Body Safely Receive

postman1 — Sun, 24 Apr 2011 09:55:05 +0000

Since the advent of nuclear energy and space travel, humans have been exposed to radiation more frequently and it has become a hot topic. There are various different things that we call “radiation”, but the type that damages humans is composed of either electromagnetic waves or atomic nuclei, which do their damage through ionization – knocking the electrons in our atoms off their orbits. If a human is exposed to too much radiation, it can cause damage, sometimes making it impossible for certain cells to continue replacing themselves, which can be fatal.
Radiation absorbed by tissue is measured in rads, where a rad is a hundredth of a joule per kilogram of tissue. A gray, a hundred times this value, is the more recently used International System of Units (SI) equivalent. Rads and grays only measure the physical intensity of the radiation, which does not accurately correlate to “damage done”.
By multiplying the intensity by two variables, Q and N, a more accurate “damage done” unit is derived, the sievert (Sv), which is a hundred times the rem. Both units are used to measure the same thing, and though the latter term is more commonly used, the former is more scientifically proper. The rad converts to the rem, while the gray converts to the sievert.
The variable Q changes based on the nature of the radiation. Photons, a relatively light form of radiation, have a Q of 1, while atomic nuclei, a relatively heavy form of radiation, have a Q of 20. The variable N changes based on the relevant tissue and species. Humans are more sensitive than most animals to radiation, therefore holding the relatively high N value of 1. A virus may have an N value a hundred or even ten thousand times smaller than this. Because of variations based on these two values, a given gray of radiation can do a wide range of actual damage, measured in sieverts.
There is a small amount of ambient background radiation everywhere on earth, which we and all life on this planet are adapted to deal with. This varies significantly based on location, but a good average is 2.4 millisieverts (mSv) per year. In space, the radiation level may be dozens or hundreds of times this value.
Radiation today is mainly released in abrupt exposures, so we mostly know about the effects of absorbing a given quantity of radiation in a very short time frame. They are as follows:
At about half a sievert to a sievert, the effects of radiation sickness can be felt. A portion of the red blood cells are temporarily wiped out, and sperm in the testes are deprived of their ability to fertilize an egg until they are recreated. Mild headache and loss of focus temporarily occur.
n radiation exposures ranging from about one sievert to two sieverts, permanent effects, or mild radiation poisoning, begin. Most people experience mild nausea, sometimes accompanied by vomiting, which lasts for about a day. A feeling of general illness persists for a week or two.
For levels of radiation more intense than this, bad things happen. For every additional sievert past one, the chance of death within 30 days increases by about 15%, adding to a base rate of around 10%. This means that about 25% of all people die within 30 days of exposure to two sieverts, around 40% of people die after exposure to three sieverts, and about 55% of people die after exposure to four sieverts. At six sieverts, the death rate is 90%, which increases quickly to 100%. The primary causes of death are internal bleeding or immune system failure that rapidly gives way to lethal infection. Hair is lost, people are rendered sterile, bone marrow is destroyed, and recovery can take years and may never be complete.

How Much Fish Oil Should I Take

postman1 — Sun, 24 Apr 2011 09:42:11 +0000

Fish oil is obtained from cold-water oily fish and is a natural source of omega-3 long-chain essential fatty acids. However, cold-water fish do not manufacture these acids as most people think, but accumulate them in their fatty tissue by consuming algae or smaller fish that do produce these acids. Unfortunately, environmental toxins are also stored in this manner, which makes frequent dining on certain predatory fish a risky proposition, particularly those fished in waters known to be contaminated. For this reason, the majority of fish oil processed as a dietary supplement is subjected to “stripping technology,” meaning that it undergoes molecular distillation and other purification procedures to remove toxins and pollutants before being packaged into capsules and softgels. The optimum amount of fish oil to take as a dietary supplement depends on why it is needed and the ratio of certain omega-3 acids to others.
The primary omega-3 acids found in fish oil that are considered to be beneficial to health are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Typically, a good quality fish oil supplement provides an average of 1,000 mg per enteric-coated capsule, with a ratio of 12 percent EPA and 28 percent DHA. However, there are fish oil supplements available that offer higher ratios of either EPA or DHA. In addition, a semi-synthetic ethyl ester is available, a concentrate that provides a total EPA and DHA concentration of up to 85 percent instead of the usual 30 percent. It should also be noted that fish oil production in Morocco, Chile, and Peru yields about 30 percent more omega-3 acids than other regions, while the waters off the southern coast of New Zealand are considered to be virtually pollutant-free.
Most manufacturers of fish oil supplements instruct the consumer to take one or two capsules daily, which usually provides 1,000-2,000 mg total. However, there is little official guidance as to how much fish oil should be taken each day, at least not in the U.S. For instance, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has yet to render a recommended daily allowance of EPA and DHA. On the other hand, the American Heart Association encourages consumers to consume two four-ounce servings of fish per week, which would equate to approximately 3,000 mg of fish oil twice per week.
As previously indicated, dosage recommendations of fish oil may vary slightly if the goal is prevent or improve a specific condition. For example, it is generally recommended that those combating Raynaud’s disease or Crohn’s Disease take 2,000 mg of fish oil twice per day for a total of 4,000 mg, while someone with lupus would benefit more from 2,000 mg taken three times per day, or a total of 6,000 mg. Most other conditions, including asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and high blood pressure, appear to respond well to a regimen of 1,000 mg of fish oil taken three times per day.

How Much Times a Day Should a Newborn Poop

postman1 — Sat, 23 Apr 2011 22:48:21 +0000

Anywhere from like 5 times a day to once a week
It varies from baby to baby. Some newborns have a bowel movement after every feeding (especially breastfed babies), some newborns go every other day or every few days. As long as your baby doesn’t seem to be constipated (bloated belly, crying, straining, etc.) then there is no need for concern.

How Many Hours Does the Ovulation Period Last

postman1 — Sat, 23 Apr 2011 22:43:40 +0000

he ovulation period lasts 24 to 48 hours. That seems like a very narrow window to get pregnant, but it’s important to remember that sperm can live 3 to 5 days in the woman’s body.
So while your chances of getting pregnant are much better if you have sexual intercourse in the day or two before ovulation, it is possible to get pregnant from sexual intercourse that occurred up to five days before ovulation.
Some women with PCOS experience multiple patches of fertile cervical mucus throughout their menstrual cycles. That doesn’t mean their ovulation period is longer, but instead, the multiple patches are caused by abnormally elevated levels of LH.
If this is a problem for you, the last batch of days in a given cycle that you have fertile cervical mucus is the batch of days that most likely preceded your ovulation period. For example, if you detected fertile cervical mucus on days 8, 9, 12, 13, 16, 17, and 18 of your menstrual cycle, you can assume that sex on days 17 and 18 were the most likely to help you get pregnant.

How Many Eggs Dose a Woman Have

postman1 — Sat, 23 Apr 2011 22:24:45 +0000

Unlike men, who produce new sperm daily throughout most of their lifetime, women are born with all their eggs in one – okay, two baskets (ovaries). To be more precise, a woman is born with about one to two million immature eggs, or follicles, in her ovaries.
Throughout her life, the vast majority of follicles will die through a process known as atresia. Atresia begins at birth and continues throughout the course of the woman’s reproductive life. When a woman reaches puberty and starts to menstruate, only about 400,000 follicles remain. With each menstrual cycle, a thousand follicles are lost and only one lucky little follicle will actually mature into an ovum (egg), which is released into the fallopian tube, kicking off ovulation. That means that of the one to two million follicles, only about 400 will ever mature.
Relatively little or no follicles remain at menopause, which usually begins when a woman is between 48-55 years of age. The remaining follicles are unlikely to mature and become viable eggs because of the hormonal changes that come along with menopause.

How Many Times A Week Should You Eat Eggs

postman1 — Sat, 23 Apr 2011 16:09:16 +0000

Everyone asks about eggs because it’s known that eggs are high in cholesterol. It’s the yolk of the egg that contains the cholesterol. That’s not the bad cholesterol itself. The bad cholesterol is the LDL, but the cholesterol in the egg can help to raise the bad cholesterol.
we recommend is that people consume daily the amount of cholesterol that is roughly in one egg yolk. So you can get cholesterol from other animal products. And so you would have to adjust the egg intake to try to stay within the guidelines of about the amount of cholesterol in one egg yolk, which is about 200 to 250 milligrams of cholesterol.
So rather than telling you how many eggs a week you can eat, we just have to keep in mind that you should keep your cholesterol intake not much more than what’s in one egg everyday

How Many People Die Each Year From Peanut Allergies

postman1 — Thu, 21 Apr 2011 20:22:00 +0000

Peanut allergies are the body’s overreaction to certain proteins found in peanuts. The immune system’s response to these allergens is to trigger an antibody, which then triggers other chemicals. One of the scariest results of these chemicals is the chance for anaphylaxis, which is a potentially fatal condition in which sufferers have trouble breathing because of constricted airways, experience a sudden and drastic drop in blood pressure, have an increased pulse rate, and sometimes even pass out.
Estimates say that in the United States, thousands of people visit the emergency room annually because of allergic reactions to food. Somewhere around 150 to 200 people die in the U.S. each year because of food allergies. It’s estimated that around 50 percent to 62 percent of those fatal cases of anaphylaxis were caused by peanut allergies. Meanwhile, around 10 people in the United Kingdom die each year because of food allergies. However, these figures are not completely reliable, in part because allergic deaths aren’t considered reportable events.
Although the number of people who die annually from peanut allergies is in the low hundreds at most, peanuts have gotten a reputation for being particularly deadly. While some people call peanut allergies an epidemic, others say the situation has been blown out of proportion. For example, Professor Nicolas Christakis of Harvard Medical School told the BBC that there was “a gross overreaction to the magnitude of the threat.” He even said that the fear of peanuts had led to a situation resembling mass psychogenic illness — once known as epidemic hysteria. Meanwhile, the “Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology” notes that the “epidemic” of peanut allergies only applies to the U.S. In France, the rate of peanut allergy is somewhere between .3 percent and .75 percent; Denmark is lower at .2 to .4 percent; and in Israel the rate of peanut allergy is around .04 percent.

How Many Ribs Does an Adult Human Have

postman1 — Thu, 21 Apr 2011 19:46:39 +0000

Humans have 24 ribs (12 pairs). The first seven sets of ribs, known as “true ribs”, are directly attached to the sternum through the costal cartilage. Rib 1 is unique and harder to distinguish from other ribs. It is a short, flat, C-shaped bone. The vertebral attachment can be found just below the neck and the majority of this bone can be found above the level of the clavicle. Ribs 2 through 7 have a more traditional appearance. The following five sets are known as “false ribs”, three of these sharing a common cartilaginous connection to the sternum, while the last two (eleventh and twelfth ribs) are termed floating ribs (costae fluitantes) or vertebral ribs. They are attached to the vertebrae only, and not to the sternum or cartilage coming off of the sternum. Some people are missing one of the two pairs of floating ribs, while others have a third pair. Rib removal is the surgical excision of ribs for therapeutic or cosmetic reasons.
In general, human ribs increase in length from ribs 1 through 7 and decrease in length again through rib 12. Along with this change in size, the ribs become progressively oblique (slanted) from ribs 1 through 9, then less slanted through rib 12.
The ribcage is separated from the lower abdomen by the thoracic diaphragm which controls breathing. When the diaphragm contracts, the ribcage and thoracic cavity are expanded, reducing intra-thoracic pressure and drawing air into the lungs.