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How Much Memory Did the First Computers Have

postman1 — Sat, 03 Sep 2011 11:06:09 +0000

Memory is the lifeblood of many computers manufactured today. The Operating Systems and other applications created to enhance user experience and provide instant access to word processing and Internet browsers require increasing amounts of memory to create the user experience to which many of us are accustomed.

This was not always the case; however, the first computers were often very large and had minimal processing capability. The input mechanism was a series of paper cards which the user had to punch holes in to represent the data the computer was to process. These early computers were built to work on specific problems or solve certain types of equations and not much more.

The first computers used punch cards for input and had very limited memory for processing. The average memory in the first computers was between three and forty five kilobits. Memory was used to store data in the processing of linear equations, and the results were then printed in binary.

When compared to the computers available today, the first computers do not seem very technologically advanced, but at the time they were created these first computers were engineering masterpieces. Many of the concepts created when building early computers are still in use in modern computing technology.

The Atanasoff-Berry Computer, credited with being the very first computer, introduced three concepts — using binary digits to represent all data, processing calculations with electronics rather than mechanical parts, and separate processing and storage — that are used in computers available today. The ABC had a whopping 3000 bits of memory which allowed it to process sixty items at one time. Other early computers had more memory, some has high as forty five kilobits, which allowed them to process several more words of data in a shorter amount of time increasing the overall processing speed of the system.

The memory in the first computers was one of the only small things about them, compared to what we have available today. The size of these early computers was very large, usually as big as a desk or even a room.

Over the last fifty to sixty years, the technology introduced in the first computers has become overshadowed by start buttons, word processors, and wireless phones that do everything from make calls to surf the Internet with seemingly endless gigabits of memory available. Without the first computers and their ability to make simple calculations, the technology we use today might not be as advanced as it has become.

How Much Text is in a Kilobyte or Megabyte

postman1 — Sat, 03 Sep 2011 10:33:17 +0000

A bit is the most basic unit of information. At their most fundamental level, most modern computers operate on binary bits which means that they can have two states, usually specified as a 0 or 1. Long strings of these bits can be used to represent most types of information including text, pictures and music.

Most modern computers are binary systems and therefore, they are particularly well suited to working with bits. Pure binary information, however, is of little use to humans. The binary number 11000101110 is equivalent to 1582; it is obvious that we are much more suited to working with digits and text instead of ones and zeros.

To help make computers more like our language-based way of thinking, groups of bits are joined into bytes. One byte is comprised of 8 bits. A set of 8 bits was chosen because this provides 256 total possibilities which is sufficient for specifying letters, numbers, spaces, punctuation and other extended characters. This very sentence, for example is composed of 125 bytes because there are 125 letters, digits, spaces and punctuation marks. Keep in mind that we are discussing pure text; some word processing programs, include other sorts of formatting data, and therefore the filesizes will be greater than the number of characters in the file.

How Much Electricity Does a Computer Use

How Much Fat Is in Whole Milk

postman1 — Sun, 24 Apr 2011 12:12:44 +0000

With the number of non-fat and low fat milk and milk products available on the market, certain questions are implied. Exactly how much lower in fat are these milks than standard milk? Is 1% or 2% milk really much lower in fat or calories than whole milk, and are there any people who should drink whole milk?
An 8 fluid ounce (about 0.236 liters or 247 grams) serving of whole milk has 146 calories, and approximately 0.279 ounces (7.93 grams) of fat. In contrast, 2% milk contains 122 calories and 0.169 ounces (4.81 grams) of fat. 1% milk has 102 calories and 0.083 ounces (2.37 grams) of fat, and non-fat or skim milk has about 0.015 ounces (0.44 grams) of fat and contains 86 calories per serving.
In percentage factors, whole milk could be called 3.5% milk. It must have at least 3.5% milk fats in order to be classed as “whole.” The above figures show, however, that whole milk has almost twice the fat content as does 2% milk, and about 16 times the fat content of nonfat milk.
This doesn’t necessarily mean that regular milk is always bad. In fact, from a calorie standpoint, the difference between standard milk and 2% milk is fairly minimal. A person would be consuming about 30 more calories when drinking whole milk. Calorie differences are most significant when comparing whole milk to non-fat milk. A glass of non-fat milk saves 64 calories, which may be an asset if the drinker is trying to lower his or her calorie consumption.
There are groups of people that should not drink lower fat milk, and there is some evidence that using low fat milks can be of detriment. This is especially the case with children. For children who drink milk, more fat content is actually better, especially for kids under two. Pediatricians represent several schools of thought here. Some suggest that children under the age of five should keep drinking regular milk, while others argue that low fat milk is fine for kids over the age of two. If a child seems to be getting plenty of calories and eats a well-balanced diet, whole milk may not be necessary.
For people with conditions that cause them to be undernourished, whole fat milk may also be a better choice than low fat varieties. If a person is trying to gain weight, more calories are usually better, and humans do need a certain amount of fat in their diet. Alternately, if a person likes the creamy taste of regular milk and eats an otherwise low fat diet, a single glass of milk a day will only constitute 23% of his or her daily allowance for saturated fat. On the other hand, if someone is trying to lose weight, lower fat milk may be the better choice.

How Much Radiation can the Human Body Safely Receive

postman1 — Sun, 24 Apr 2011 09:55:05 +0000

Since the advent of nuclear energy and space travel, humans have been exposed to radiation more frequently and it has become a hot topic. There are various different things that we call “radiation”, but the type that damages humans is composed of either electromagnetic waves or atomic nuclei, which do their damage through ionization – knocking the electrons in our atoms off their orbits. If a human is exposed to too much radiation, it can cause damage, sometimes making it impossible for certain cells to continue replacing themselves, which can be fatal.
Radiation absorbed by tissue is measured in rads, where a rad is a hundredth of a joule per kilogram of tissue. A gray, a hundred times this value, is the more recently used International System of Units (SI) equivalent. Rads and grays only measure the physical intensity of the radiation, which does not accurately correlate to “damage done”.
By multiplying the intensity by two variables, Q and N, a more accurate “damage done” unit is derived, the sievert (Sv), which is a hundred times the rem. Both units are used to measure the same thing, and though the latter term is more commonly used, the former is more scientifically proper. The rad converts to the rem, while the gray converts to the sievert.
The variable Q changes based on the nature of the radiation. Photons, a relatively light form of radiation, have a Q of 1, while atomic nuclei, a relatively heavy form of radiation, have a Q of 20. The variable N changes based on the relevant tissue and species. Humans are more sensitive than most animals to radiation, therefore holding the relatively high N value of 1. A virus may have an N value a hundred or even ten thousand times smaller than this. Because of variations based on these two values, a given gray of radiation can do a wide range of actual damage, measured in sieverts.
There is a small amount of ambient background radiation everywhere on earth, which we and all life on this planet are adapted to deal with. This varies significantly based on location, but a good average is 2.4 millisieverts (mSv) per year. In space, the radiation level may be dozens or hundreds of times this value.
Radiation today is mainly released in abrupt exposures, so we mostly know about the effects of absorbing a given quantity of radiation in a very short time frame. They are as follows:
At about half a sievert to a sievert, the effects of radiation sickness can be felt. A portion of the red blood cells are temporarily wiped out, and sperm in the testes are deprived of their ability to fertilize an egg until they are recreated. Mild headache and loss of focus temporarily occur.
n radiation exposures ranging from about one sievert to two sieverts, permanent effects, or mild radiation poisoning, begin. Most people experience mild nausea, sometimes accompanied by vomiting, which lasts for about a day. A feeling of general illness persists for a week or two.
For levels of radiation more intense than this, bad things happen. For every additional sievert past one, the chance of death within 30 days increases by about 15%, adding to a base rate of around 10%. This means that about 25% of all people die within 30 days of exposure to two sieverts, around 40% of people die after exposure to three sieverts, and about 55% of people die after exposure to four sieverts. At six sieverts, the death rate is 90%, which increases quickly to 100%. The primary causes of death are internal bleeding or immune system failure that rapidly gives way to lethal infection. Hair is lost, people are rendered sterile, bone marrow is destroyed, and recovery can take years and may never be complete.

How Much Fish Oil Should I Take

postman1 — Sun, 24 Apr 2011 09:42:11 +0000

Fish oil is obtained from cold-water oily fish and is a natural source of omega-3 long-chain essential fatty acids. However, cold-water fish do not manufacture these acids as most people think, but accumulate them in their fatty tissue by consuming algae or smaller fish that do produce these acids. Unfortunately, environmental toxins are also stored in this manner, which makes frequent dining on certain predatory fish a risky proposition, particularly those fished in waters known to be contaminated. For this reason, the majority of fish oil processed as a dietary supplement is subjected to “stripping technology,” meaning that it undergoes molecular distillation and other purification procedures to remove toxins and pollutants before being packaged into capsules and softgels. The optimum amount of fish oil to take as a dietary supplement depends on why it is needed and the ratio of certain omega-3 acids to others.
The primary omega-3 acids found in fish oil that are considered to be beneficial to health are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Typically, a good quality fish oil supplement provides an average of 1,000 mg per enteric-coated capsule, with a ratio of 12 percent EPA and 28 percent DHA. However, there are fish oil supplements available that offer higher ratios of either EPA or DHA. In addition, a semi-synthetic ethyl ester is available, a concentrate that provides a total EPA and DHA concentration of up to 85 percent instead of the usual 30 percent. It should also be noted that fish oil production in Morocco, Chile, and Peru yields about 30 percent more omega-3 acids than other regions, while the waters off the southern coast of New Zealand are considered to be virtually pollutant-free.
Most manufacturers of fish oil supplements instruct the consumer to take one or two capsules daily, which usually provides 1,000-2,000 mg total. However, there is little official guidance as to how much fish oil should be taken each day, at least not in the U.S. For instance, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has yet to render a recommended daily allowance of EPA and DHA. On the other hand, the American Heart Association encourages consumers to consume two four-ounce servings of fish per week, which would equate to approximately 3,000 mg of fish oil twice per week.
As previously indicated, dosage recommendations of fish oil may vary slightly if the goal is prevent or improve a specific condition. For example, it is generally recommended that those combating Raynaud’s disease or Crohn’s Disease take 2,000 mg of fish oil twice per day for a total of 4,000 mg, while someone with lupus would benefit more from 2,000 mg taken three times per day, or a total of 6,000 mg. Most other conditions, including asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and high blood pressure, appear to respond well to a regimen of 1,000 mg of fish oil taken three times per day.

How Much Energy Do Space Heaters Use

postman1 — Sun, 24 Apr 2011 09:37:57 +0000

Space heaters are considered energy hogs with very good reason. The smallest electric space heaters can use about 3,000 watts (about 10,000 BTUs per hour). Larger electric space heaters may use over 11,000 watts (about 40,000 BTUs per hour). Using space heaters instead of central heating may increase your overall energy costs for heating by about 70%.
Some people also use propane-based space heaters, called combustion models. These may be good for emergencies when electricity is not available but they do need to be properly vented so as not to release dangerous carbon monoxide into a home’s air. For these, one purchases either propane or diesel fuel, but never gasoline. Many combustion model space heaters are measured by British Thermal Units (BTUs) only.
Essentially a BTU is a measurement of the amount of energy needed to heat one pound of water by one degree. It is transferable to watts, but costs of energy will depend largely on the source. If you happen to live in an area where propane is inexpensive, propane based space heaters are often considered less expensive to run. They may use about 2,300 watts (7,847.93 BTUs per hour) to 4,100 watts (13,989.78 BTUs per hour).
Combustion models are certainly cheaper, and do by and large use less energy. A large combustion model heater uses about the same energy as a small to mid-size electric space heater. However, neither kind of space heater is without its dangers.
Space heaters should always be used in very safe settings. They should be kept away from children, and combustion models, unless they are rated as safe for indoor use, must be ventilated. Space heaters account for numerous fires each year in the US, about 25,000. These often result from improper use.
On the other hand, even though space heaters do consume more energy, if they are used sparingly, and safely, they may ultimately use less energy than central heating. This is because central heating heats all the rooms in one’s home. If one only wants one room heated for a short period of time, it may prove more economical to use a recently built, small space heater.
One can also save money and energy by carefully reading the manufacturer’s recommendations on space heaters. One should purchase a space heater that is large enough, but not too large for a particular room’s dimensions. It does not make sense to purchase space heaters that are supposed to heat larger spaces than one has, and it will cost more in energy. It will also be more expensive to run a space heater that is too small for the room one wishes to heat. The space heater will have to run longer to provide the ideal temperature.

How Much Does it Cost to Make a Penny

postman1 — Sun, 24 Apr 2011 09:26:12 +0000

As of May 2008, it costs 1.26¢ US (or $0.0126 US Dollars(USD)) to make a penny, making the face value of a penny less than its actual value. The cost to make a penny first exceeded the face value of pennies in 2006, briefly rising to almost 2¢ US in 2007 before falling again. The rising cost of making a penny has led to some serious reconsideration of the composition of the penny at the United States Mint, the government agency responsible for printing money and striking new coinage.
The cost of a penny is largely dictated by the materials used to make it. Pennies contain 97.5% zinc, with 2.5% copper to give them their distinctive coppery color. Prices of these metals have risen dramatically in the early 21st century, in response to market demands and increasing regulation of mining, which has made the cost of metals extraction much higher.
The obvious solution to make a penny less expensive is to change the composition of the coin, integrating cheaper metals or perhaps even plastics, as is done with some European currency. However, attempts at changing the composition of the penny have met with some opposition, since some people are concerned that changes in composition could change the look and feel of this iconic American coin. Others have suggested that it may be time to do away with the one cent piece altogether, a decision which would certainly change the way Americans do business.
In addition to the penny, the nickel also has a physical value which is higher than its face value; nickels cost around 7.7¢ US to make. Other currency, such as dimes and quarters, costs much less to make. The face value of a quarter may be 25¢ US, but it only costs 10¢ US to make one. The relative high cost to make a penny or a nickel is balanced out by the lower costs of producing other coins, in some people’s opinions.
Changing commodities prices will continue to drive up the price to make a penny. It is unlikely that the cost of production will ever fall below one cent, and with more pennies being made each year, the Mint may face some tough decisions. Like other government agencies, the Mint is expected to be financially accountable, and the business practice of distributing something with a value less than its manufacturing cost is not very sound. Whether Americans like it or not, this means that the penny and the nickel may be undergoing changes to address this issue.

How Much Does it Cost to Raise a Child in the United States

postman1 — Sun, 24 Apr 2011 09:19:21 +0000

It can be very expensive to raise a child in the United States. For example, according to one online calculator, it costs almost $200,000 US Dollars (USD) to raise a child from birth to age 18. Other sources estimate the cost at $250,000 USD or more. For parents who put their kids through college, tuition can add as much as $10,000 USD or more to that estimate.
Although this may seem like an unaffordable amount of money, keep in mind that the cost of raising children is spread out over almost two decades. Divided equally by 18 years, to raise a child will cost you roughly $11,000 USD per year. If you have two children, it will theoretically cost you about $22,000 USD per year to raise them, and so on. However, keep in mind that the first 11 or 12 years of each child’s life will most likely be more expensive than the teen years, because daycare expenses usually go away at age 12.
Fortunately, many of these expenses are ones that smart families can avoid, dramatically lowering what it costs to raise a child. For example, the online calculator estimates an expense of $2,900 USD per year for a bigger home. If you can find a bigger home that suits your needs for only $700 USD more a year, it will drop the total expense down to $150,000 USD. If you raise a child in the same size home you have now, you’ll spend under $140,000 USD.
Likewise, the calculator includes an annual cost of $1,250 USD for a bigger car. However, many families can raise a child using the cars they already have, which saves around $15,000 USD over a period of 18 years.
Other costs of raising a child are negotiable, too. For instance, breastfeeding for the first year of your baby’s life could save you a thousand dollars or more in groceries. Making your own baby food — which is actually quite simple — can also save you hundreds of dollars. Savvy shoppers should also be able to clothe their child for well under the allotted $600 per year.
The recreation category provides another way you can save money while you raise a child. There are many free or low-cost ways to entertain your kids. Trips to the library and the park, picnics, and school and community events are all great free or low-cost outings for you and your child. Also, don’t forget that children have great imaginations, and can easily entertain themselves with the toys they already have.
Although at first glance it seems very expensive to raise a child in the United States, in reality, many of the costs are unnecessary, and can be avoided by financially savvy parents. By cutting or eliminating some of the expenses as described here, you should be able to cut the cost of raising a child nearly in half.

How Much Should I Tip at a Restaurant

postman1 — Sun, 24 Apr 2011 09:15:55 +0000

How much you should tip at a restaurant depends on these factors: the size of your party, the class of the restaurant, and the quality of the service. In this case we’ll call a large party anything over 6 people, and an expensive restaurant a “four-star” restaurant. But first let’s consider more humble establishments.
How much should you tip for eating at a counter? In this case service isn’t considered a big part of the meal, so 10% – 12% is an adequate tip. However, if the service is excellent there is nothing wrong with tipping 15%.
How much should you tip for eating at a local restaurant? Providing the service was good, a tip of 15% of the bill before tax is a good rule of thumb. If you happen to live where the state tax is between 7% and 8% you can calculate the tip easily by looking at the amount you are taxed and simply doubling it. You can then round this amount off higher or lower, depending on the service and your state’s tax percentage
For example, let’s say the state tax is 8%. If the bill comes to $48.70, the tax will be $3.90, for a total bill of $52.60. To quickly calculate the tip, double $3.90 for a tip of $7.80. Since this is 16% (twice the state tax), you can round down to leave a $7 tip. This comes to just slightly less than 15%. Or if you had an especially nice meal you might want to round up to $8 to leave a slightly larger tip. If you are dining with a large party, a 20% tip is appropriate.
Bear in mind that food and service are separate issues. If the food was bad but the service was good, complain to the manager about the food, but tip the server for their efforts. On the other hand, if the food was good but the meal was ruined by poor service, a lower tip can reflect that as well.
ut how much should you tip at a four-star restaurant? At a four-star restaurant, the maitre d’ may be the first person you tip, particularly if you are a regular and he goes out of his way to either keep a table for you, or to seat you even when the restaurant is very busy. The maitre d’ tip might be $20 – $100, and should be given to him before you are seated, or as you are seated, but not after you are seated. Once you have dined, expect to leave a 20% tip. Again the tip is calculated before tax. If you have wine with your meal, the wine steward should be tipped $2 or $3 dollars for a bottle of wine under $10, or if multiple bottles are ordered, 10% – 15% of the wine bill. If you order a single bottle that is extremely expensive a 5% tip to the wine steward is acceptable.
Another person you might need to tip at a four-star restaurant is the coat check attendant. Tipping $1 for one or two coats is fine. Restroom attendants are normally tipped 50 cents to $1, and parking attendants can be tipped $1. If you stop in at a restaurant’s bar while waiting to be seated, the bartender should be tipped $1 per drink, or if you have multiple drinks, 10-15% of the bar bill.
No matter the restaurant, tipping a few percent more is always a good idea when the server has had to work particularly hard for your table or went out of their way to make your meal especially pleasant. Waiting on tables is hard and often frustrating work that usually involves little thanks. Although tips have come to be expected, rather than a reward for service well done, when the service is good it’s nice to let that conscientious server know that you noticed by leaving a good tip.
Some restaurants now add a surcharge to the bill that is supposed to be a “built in” tip. This money is theoretically divided up among busboys and other staff, however it is not unheard of that some restaurant owners keep this fee, and the customer is still expected to tip. If your restaurant bill comes with a surcharge, ask the waitress if she gets a portion of that money. If the answer is no, leave her the customary tip, based on the food bill before the tax and surcharge. Whether or not you wish to patronize that particular restaurant again in the future is up to you!

How Much Times a Day Should a Newborn Poop

postman1 — Sat, 23 Apr 2011 22:48:21 +0000

Anywhere from like 5 times a day to once a week
It varies from baby to baby. Some newborns have a bowel movement after every feeding (especially breastfed babies), some newborns go every other day or every few days. As long as your baby doesn’t seem to be constipated (bloated belly, crying, straining, etc.) then there is no need for concern.